Ratio and Financial Statement Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Ratio and Financial Statement Analysis - Essay Example Concepts that have been used include annuity which is a series of constant cash flows that occurs at the end of each period called a term, perpetuity which is a financial asset that does not have a maturity period but keep making payments indefinitely, compounding which is finding the future value of one or more cash flows, discounting which is determining the present value of one or more future cash flows. Financial decisions are made based on future value or present value. Future value is what one or more cash flows are worth at the end of the period while the present value measures the worth of one or more cash flows to be received in the future are worth today. The effective annual interest rate which is the annual growth rate that takes into account compounding. These concepts are fully covered in the paper while handing the questions. Financial management ratios are an area of expertise that every manager in any financial position should get acquainted with. They are useful in helping him to make sound financial decisions on the source of funds, the investment option to undertake and the financial prudence needed in the running of a business entity. What the time value of money is and why it is so important in the field of finance: The question that comes to mind is what the value of a future cash flow is today. The time value of money is the value of the stream of future cash flows today. Money has a time value since a dollar held today is worth more than a dollar to be received in the future. If you had the money today, you would have probably invested it and earned interest thus time value of money is the opportunity cost of foregoing todays consumption. Time value of money is important in the field of fiancà © because before investment decisions are made there is required that a comparison be made between the value funds invested today and the value of expected future cash inflows. The

Personal Statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Personal Statement - Essay Example Since a very young age, I began to understand the technicalities of a business, how money was to be managed, what factors were good for a business, what factors disturbed it. What fascinated me most was the role played by money in every small decision of the business, and that is when my interest in economics started to bud. I began to notice the fundamental role of economics in my everyday life. I began to realize that economics permeated every aspect of the world, from politics to religion to social affairs; the economy had a role to play in every affair. Whether it was an unsatisfactory budget that affected us or the general down-fall of economy which meant less demand for luxuries, the economy has always affected me in a personal way. It comes as no surprise that I’ve always had to keep myself up to date with the ever-changing economic climate. Further aided by the fact that my grandfather happens to possess one of the soundest and most brilliant economic minds I happen to have come across, and when it was time to choose my future, there were no second thoughts involved in opting for Economics. Making a difference and changing the world for the better is a passion I hold very near to my heart. I have always grabbed every opportunity to give back to my society whenever I can. I have done volunteer work at the local church time and again. This has involved usher work as well as organizing events there. Moreover, I have taken part in beach clean-ups and other similar activities around my town. As I grew up and gained a better understanding of the world, I realized that the most effective manner in which I can do this is by altering the economy. With a healthy economy comes a better standard of living, and that leads to a generally happier society. I believe that a good student should encompass all the different dimensions that life has to offer. Fun, learning, leisure, socializing, room has to be made for each and every one if one wants to call himself a complete student. I myself have been able to follow this philosophy quite successfully. Striking the right balance between all these aspects, I have a lot of credentials to show for it. In high school, all my subjects other than economics have helped me in one way or another. Where Mathematics helped me develop fundamental concepts and helped me in economic calculations, accounting helps me understand a completely different side of finance and psychology helped me understand how people’s thought processes work and why they do the things that they do. However, academics are not as wide as my horizon goes. There is so much else more to my individuality. Throughout my school life, I have been involved in a variety of social work. This includes organizing fund raisers for various charities, helping out orphan children or even planting trees in deforested areas. One major activity I was involved in was the raising and distribution of funds collected for the Tsunami that hit the coasts of South and East Asia a few years back. Thereafter, I was elected as President of our school’s Community Service Club. Furthermore, I happen to be a very accomplished sportsman. I have been playing for my House cricket, football and basketball teams since the early days of my school. Even though I take part in all the sports I can, I have a special place in my heart for football. My other activities involve playing rhythm and bass guitar with various bands in the city, writing and helping my parents go on with

Ratio and Financial Statement Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Ratio and Financial Statement Analysis - Essay Example Concepts that have been used include annuity which is a series of constant cash flows that occurs at the end of each period called a term, perpetuity which is a financial asset that does not have a maturity period but keep making payments indefinitely, compounding which is finding the future value of one or more cash flows, discounting which is determining the present value of one or more future cash flows. Financial decisions are made based on future value or present value. Future value is what one or more cash flows are worth at the end of the period while the present value measures the worth of one or more cash flows to be received in the future are worth today. The effective annual interest rate which is the annual growth rate that takes into account compounding. These concepts are fully covered in the paper while handing the questions. Financial management ratios are an area of expertise that every manager in any financial position should get acquainted with. They are useful in helping him to make sound financial decisions on the source of funds, the investment option to undertake and the financial prudence needed in the running of a business entity. What the time value of money is and why it is so important in the field of finance: The question that comes to mind is what the value of a future cash flow is today. The time value of money is the value of the stream of future cash flows today. Money has a time value since a dollar held today is worth more than a dollar to be received in the future. If you had the money today, you would have probably invested it and earned interest thus time value of money is the opportunity cost of foregoing todays consumption. Time value of money is important in the field of fiancà © because before investment decisions are made there is required that a comparison be made between the value funds invested today and the value of expected future cash inflows. The

Totalitarianism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Totalitarianism - Essay Example Totalitarianism is defined as a political organization in which the state strives to control all aspects of public and private life of its citizens. Totalitarian regimes stay in power by employing widespread use of violence, disseminating propaganda through state controlled media, political oppression, denial of freedom of speech and control over the economy. However, Hannah Arendt perceives totalitarian as a system where the state transform class into mass movements, have the national police assume the role of the military to instill terror in people and establish a foreign policy with the intention of domineering the whole world (Cohen & Fermon 575). Arendt argues that totalitarian movements established by totalitarian governments depend on the sheer force of numbers and not proportionate strength like other political parties. With this understanding, it is clear that communism, socialism, liberalism, feminism, conservatism and fascism are totalitarian ideologies. This paper is int ended to show that in the idea of Hannah Arendt, Benito Mussolini; a fascist, Vladimir Lenin; a communist, and Emma Goldman; anarchist and feminist, were all totalitarians. At the end of the First World War, Italy was found entangled in economic and political challenges. Public servants went on strike in urban centers while, in the rural areas, landless peasants grabbed the property of rich landlords. Benito Mussolini used this unrest as an opportunity to climb to power. He formed the fascist party which supported hard line nationalism, and condemned democratic system of government on the belief that competitor parties separated the state. They also reject communism and embraced personal property ownership. In the early 1920s, Mussolini and his supporters had worn the support of most Italian citizens by attacking the communists and socialists. In1922 Mussolini led Italians on a protest march on Rome supposedly to prevent a communist revolution but in a real sense to scare the government into appointing him as the prime minister of Italy. Immediately he was in office he enlarged his power by appointing Fascists to high positions, censoring the press, org anizing secret police, and outlawing condemnation of the government. He controlled the army and the schools making Italian citizens embrace the slogan â€Å"Everything in the state and nothing outside or against the state† (Cohen & Fermon 571). Mussolini’s Italy was dominated by one party; Fascist party and all opposition parties were wiped out. Mussolini also had a lot of power over this party, until people argued that the party had no part in running of the country but Mussolini himself. He later decided that he wants to run the country for himself and that the party is no longer important for anything else than doing what he wanted. Mussolini believed in making Italy great by making Italians go to war by all means. On his coming to power, he made Italians to belief that he was their savior considering hard times they were facing. He replaced the class society with the masses so that he can avoid criticism and later ruled them with the iron fist. For this, his action s constituted totalitarianism as defined by Arendt. Mussolini faulted the American democracy arguing that people do not know what they want and the best for them. He swore that someday America will know that democracy is only beautifully theoretically but a fallacy practically (Cohen & Fermon 532). Mussolini would have been right here when he said that people do not know what they want during voting in leaders. It has always been known that most of the leaders win elections because of their influence and not their ideology. The best people with good ideologies are normally left out. Vladimir Lenin believed in a

Organizations And Behavior Essay Example for Free

Organizations And Behavior Essay Introduction Management is an important activity in the performance of an organization.   Management involves integrated activities which together ensue that there is effective planning, control, and organization of recourses to lead the organization to achieve its goals and objectives. This means that managers need to have a wide range of information pertaining to different  Ã‚   departments in the organization. In this paper we are going to discus different management perspectives through accomplishment of different tasks.   The paper will look into organization structure can culture, motivation of employees, working with others in teams and groups, and organization leadership and management. Task 1 Comparing organization structure and culture of McDonalds and King George Pizza in Canada The fast food is one of the most competitive industries in the world.   The fast food industry has been recording higher rates of growth in North America including U.S and Canada than any other part of the world. MacDonald is a major player in the North American fast food industry while King George Pizza is one of small fast food establishment in British Columbia. Although the two companies operate in the same industry, there are a lot of similarity and differences in the organization structure and culture. This is based on the difference that comes as result of difference in their operation. McDonald organization structure is based on the size of its operation  Ã‚   which means that the structure has to adapt to the franchise nature of its operation (Haas and Wotruba 2003, p. 92). On the other hand, King Georges Pizza is a local restaurant operating just one branch in British Columbia. The culture between the two organization is also similar and at the same time with some differences. One of the key successes of MacDonald in the fast food industry has been its strong customer oriented culture. McDonald has adopted a market oriented culture which ensures that the company understands its consumers very well.   On the other hand, King George Pizza has also adopted a market oriented culture but its marketing activities have not been well targeted to the consumers like those of McDonalds. Due to its larger size of operation, MacDonald has adopted a bureaucratic structure that allows for standardization of its operations. The company has adopted tall structure in order to provide for standardization of operations and decision making process. On the hand, King George Pizza has adopted a pre-bureaucratic structure which lacks standardization with management strategies meant to meet the operational needs of the small establishment. The success of McDonalds has been cemented on it culture and organization structure. Since it was established, the company has taken consumer oriented hospitality culture that keeps customers coming for more.   McDonald is one of the companies which use a huge part of their revenues on customer service and advertisement in order to create good relationship with its customers. Apart from the customer oriented culture, the leadership of the company is democratic and ensures inclusion of employees in the decision making process.   The company takes its employees as the most important capital asset  Ã‚   for its growth.   Therefore McDonald employees are well motivated.   The structure of the organization has ensured standardized operations in all its establishments. Although there is management control from the head office, the franchises are given freedom in decision making process to make decisions which fits their operation (Haas and Wotruba 2003, p. 92). On the other hand, the King George Pizza has adopted an organization culture and structure that fits its operation. Like MacDonald, the company has a strong consumer oriented culture and although it does not have a customer service department, the employees have been well trained on customer service.   This has ensured the continued flow of customer to the small establishment in a competitive fast food market. At the same time, the company has adopted the right structure for its small operations. This structure ensures that there is strong control of the operation of the establishment by the management. Task 2 – Approaches to Management and Leadership Management approaches and how they can be implemented Management is one of the most important factions in the organization. Management involves playing key roles of planning and organizing the resources for the organization to lead it to achieve the set goals. Research has documented a correlation between the effectiveness of the management and the overall performance of the organization. There are different approaches to management depending on the kind of organization that one is dealing with (Haas and Wotruba 2003, p. 92).  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the most common approaches to management is the project management.   This approach ahs been used for decades although it has been undergoing several changes in the recent past. Under this approach, the management takes the organization as a project that has specific goals and objectives to achieve. Therefore the guiding principle in the management is the requirements of the project and the fulfillment of the mission needs of the organization. This approach therefore assumes that the organization runs in cycles like a project and in each cycle, there are specific objectives that have to be leading the achievement of the overall goal.   However, this approach is  Ã‚   more focused on the technical mission or the technical aspects of the projection and various plans of action  Ã‚   and milestones to be achieved are the guiding pillars for the organization. Under this approach, the management takes into consideration activities like team building, budgeting, tracking the tasks as assigned to different individuals in the organization, reviewing individual performance, and many others. The success of the project or the organization is based on the way it meets its deliverables on the stipulated time and the set budget. This means that this approach is a bit rigid and set to details. To implement this approach, the management has to understand the goals and objectives of the organization and then formulate the necessary plan that will lead the organization to achieve the set goals and objectives. Another common management approach is the Balanced score card approach. This is a strategic planning and management system which is widely used in business, government, non-profit organization, and in other organizations with an aim of aligning the acclivities of the business with the vision and the overall growth strategy.   This approach is also aimed at improving the internal and external communications and toe monitor the progress in the performance of the organization in light of the set goals. This management approach is also focused on the drivers for the future growth and performance of the organization.   To achieve this, the management prioritizes the projects or initiatives which are likely to assist the organization to achieve these goals.   In order to implement this approach, the management has to view organization from four different perspectives including the learning and growth perspective, the business process perspective, the customer perspective, and financial perspective (Haas and Wotruba 2003, p. 92). Operational change As the U.S economy recede, most companies have been forced to undergo operations changes which are meant to reduce the cost of operation to align with the changing economic condition. The U.S Automotive industry which is on its knees due to threats of bankruptcy has seen a number of players in the industry under various operational changes in order to reduce the cost of operation. With the large burden of meeting the high labor cost, General Motors is one of the companies which as restructured its operation in a number of ways in order to cut its cost. Although the changes have emanated from the economical factors which may be beyond the control of the company, it has result to massive layoff and closing down of its plants in order to reduce the cost of operation. However, this has not gone well with UAW which is the trade union representing automotive workers in the US. The issues for confrontation has been the agreement that were made earlier between the company and the worker and even in the current financial crisis, the UAW has refused to let the deal go. Apparently the company could have retained some of the labor force and lowered the rate of pay per hour. At this time we can say the company is in a crisis. Managing change during a crisis is one of the most difficult tasks for any organization. At the time of crisis the organization needs to have a strong leadership style that does not compromise on the need to bring the organization back to its feet. Therefore authoritative leadership should be used to manage the current restructuring taking place in Ford General Motors. Authoritative leadership would minimize the number of time the management ha s to engage with the employees and the unions since the union has failed to recognize the current financial situation of the company. Task 3 – Motivational Theories In the 20th century management, the organizational assets were the most important capital for an organization. However, this has drastically changed in the 21st century and employees have become the most important capital for any organization. A well motivated workforce  Ã‚   can help an organization to have a competitive edge in the market which other organizations may find difficult to replicate.  Ã‚   One of the most important factors in human resource management is to ensure the overall satisfaction of the employees.  Ã‚   The main duty of human resource management is to ensure that employees are represented in the management and their affairs are taken care of. Motivation of the employees is one of the human resource practices that have been shown to increase employee satisfaction and therefore low rate of employee turnover and higher retention. Different organizations have taken different approaches to employee motivation (Weightman 2008, p. 45).   Research has documented that  Ã‚   despite the varied methods of employees motivation, monetary incentives remains the most effective.   Employee motivation can be described using behavioral and social approach. According to the behavioral approach, the management needs to have a clear understanding of the employees including the incentives and rewards that are used to motivate employees in the company.   In this case the managers have a duty of identifying the specific behavior that need to be reinforced in employees. These may include outstanding performance of the employee, punctuality, neatness, accuracy in completion of tasks and others. Any employee who shows improvements in these behaviors need to be rewarded to reinforce the development of those positive behaviors. On the other hand, social approaches include the integration of the cognitive and the behavioral aspects.   This theory view motivation as a factor produced by two forces including the expectation of the individual to succeed at work and the need to gain vicarious experience. Once the management recognizes the individual expectations, then they should provide the approach environment that will help the individual employee to achieve these. According the Maslow hierarchy of needs, we have different needs in our life that has to be fulfilled. The Maslow hierarchy therefore assumes that there are those basic needs that have to be met for the employees to the motivated.   The Maslow hierarchy of needs can be used to categorize how employees have different needs that have to be met for them to be motivated (Weightman 2008, p. 45).   .   The Maslow hierarchy theory starts with the basic needs up to social need. At the bottom there is physiological needs, safety, social, esteem, and self actualization a the top This means that it is important to recognize the specific needs of the employee that has to be met first according their hierarchy of needs. According to this theory, there are some basic needs that have to be met and in our life, we struggle to meet these needs. This means that our quest in life is to climb up the Maslow hierarchy to meet these needs.   Therefore if such needs are not satisfied, then individual motivation will arise from to satisfy them.   In line with fulfillment of these needs, a business therefore needs to offer different incentives to the workers in order to fulfill the different need as they progress up the ladder. Another theory of motivation is the two factor theory of Hertzberg.   Also known as hygiene theory,  Ã‚   it emphasizes more on the factors in the working environment which causes satisfaction and dissatisfaction.   The following table lists the top six factors which cause dissatisfaction and the top six factors causing satisfaction. Factors leading to dissatisfaction Leading to satisfaction Company policy Achievement Supervision Recognition Relationship with the boss Work itself Work conditions Responsibility Salary Advancement Relationship with peers Growth Like Maslow, Hertzberg reasoned that there are different individual needs which can be satisfied by money while there are others which cannot be satisfied by money. He argued that physiological needs or basic needs should be satisfied first while the other physiological needs should be satisfied later (Weightman 2008, p. 45).   . The implications of Hertzberg theory assert that the management should not only meet the hygiene factor to avoid the dissatisfaction of employees but they must also provide other factors which intrinsic to work in order to have satisfied employees. For example IBM, which is one of the most prosperous ICT companies in the world, has taken various strategies including flexible working schedules, pay per performance, and others in order to motivate their employees. The company takes an order from a client and allocates it to the worker who then works closely with the client to ensure that they meet all the technological challenges given by the client. Task 4 – Working with others, teamwork, groups and group dynamics Difference between teams and groups In many instances, we tend to use the work group and team interchangeably. However there are many differences between a tem and a group in the real application of the two.   In management we usually stress the importance of team building and not group building. This is because the strength of a team depends on the common purpose and the connectivity of the individual members. On the other hand, the strength of a group come the volume or the willingness to carry out the command given by the leader. In real application, it is very easy to form a group rather than a team. A group can be formed   by individuals of different   types and background but eventually it will be very difficult to achieve the commonality between the group members.   It is very difficult to build consensus in a group for a leader that it is in a team.   Unlike a group which is simple to form, a team is quite difficult to form.    The members of a team are not selected on the ground of commonality but on the ground of compatibility in different  Ã‚   complementary skills. For example a business team can be made up of an accountant, a salesman, secretary, and others.   Every member plays a different role but which are integrated to achieve a common goal. Unlike in a group, there is no room for conflicts in a team. The role of teams in a small and a big organization differs in some aspects although all the teams have the same role of achieving a set goal. However, teams in a small organization may be easier to form and evaluate and their process of work may be simpler due to the size of their operation. On the other hand, teams in a larger organization may take time to form since all members have to be consulted. Their process of work may be a bit difficult since they have a large operation to cover. Application of Tuckman and Jensen team development model Tuckman and Jensen present us with four stages which define group development.   Although the process can be subconscious, the four stages present the process which all groups go through in their formation. The first stage is the forming stage in which the individual behavior is defined by the desire to be accepted by other members of the team (McGrath and Tschan 2004, p. 61).   At this stage, serious issues, feelings, controversy, or conflict are usually avoided.   The individuals get more focused on adapting to their roles and gather information about others. The next stage is storming stage in which the group remains good to the other only when important issues are addressed.   There are minor confrontations which are dealt with or are ignored. These conflicts are related to work or relationship in the group.   The next stage is the norming stage in which the rules of engagement for the group member are established. At this stage, members understands the other well and the experience the efforts and experience of the other. However, individuals at this stage are resistance to change especially from outside for fear of group break up (McGrath and Tschan 2004, p. 61). The last stage is the performing stage which not many groups usually reach this stage.   This stage is characterized by interdependence and flexibility and every group member understand their role and trust each other. The group identity, loyalty and the performance are high as members become task oriented. How communication methods can affect team performance in a large multi national organization. Communication is one of the most important factors for optimum performance of an organization.   The communication process helps the organizations to pass important operation details from one department to the other. The communication structure in an organization is also very important since determines the flow of information from the management to the employees.   The  Ã‚   communication structure in an organization should ensure the smooth flow of information between the dyad in the work place. However, communication methods can affect team performance in multinational organizations. In most multinational organizations, the teams may be allocated to a certain function far away from the managements of the organization. This means that the team may be faced with the difficulty of enquiring important details regarding their duties from the management. At the same time, there is a high likelihood that the team will be made up of individuals using different languages. This means that the team will require an interpreter for it to function effectively (McGrath and Tschan 2004, p. 61). While forming teams for multinational organizations, language barrier should be one of the most important factors to consider. Bibligraphy: Haas, R.W. Wotruba, T.R 2003, Management: Concepts, Practice and Cases, Texas: Business Publications, Inc McGrath, J. E., Tschan, F 2004, Temporal matters in social psychology: Examining the role of time in the lives of groups and individuals. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Weightman, J 2008, The Employee Motivation Audit, Cambridge Strategy Publications

How Reliable is Eyewitness Testimony?

How Reliable is Eyewitness Testimony? This essays attempts to reach a conclusion regarding eyewitness testimonies and the extent of its reliability. This was done by identifying factors in three different processes stages. The acquisition stage is the period where the witness experiences the event. The retention stage is the period between the time the event ends and the time the witness are asked for a recount or questioned about the event. The retrieval stage is the period where the witness is providing information from their recall. During the acquisition stage, research regarding exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event (for example, time), violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress was analysed. During the retention stage, research regarding post-event information, introduction of conflicting information and introduction of misleading information was analysed. During the retrieval stage, research regarding method of questioning, leading questions and a case study of an actual event was analysed. Experiments and case studies regarding these factors were then evaluated to weigh the impact that it had on eyewitness testimony. In conclusion, it was found that experiments regarding eyewitness testimony hold little evidence to support its reliability but there are also some findings that dispute this. Thus, it was concluded that it is reliable only to a small extent though it can be highly accurate under certain conditions. Applications of this conclusion includes jurors being more aware of the factors regarding eyewitness testimony and taking into account when deciding on a verdict especially if the main evidence is based solely on eyewitness recounts. Word Count: 252 words Introduction Eyewitness testimony is usually a verbal account given by an individual who has experienced an event, typically of a crime. Eyewitness testimony relies heavily on the capability of the individuals to accurately recount the event. In a trial, the jury is most often persuaded due to the statement(s) of the witnesses. Also, in cases where little material evidence can be collected, eyewitnesses are the focus for reaching a verdict. It has been argued that because testimonies are largely based on fallible memory which can be influenced by a variety of factors, it should not be depended upon. The contention of this essay is to identify and evaluate the extent of accuracy of this claim by identifying and evaluating factors that affect memory and by reviewing experiments and case studies to reach a conclusion on this matter. Memory and thus eye-witness reliability has become an issue of importance due to the high percentage of errors in identifying and prosecuting accused individuals. Thus, the reliability of eyewitness testimonies and impact on trials should be reviewed. Memory is defined as a kind of repository in which facts (information) may be retained over some period of time (Loftus, 1979). According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory storage (1971), memory is made up of three different types of information stores, each with different duration, capacity and function. The first is Sensory Memory. This type of store lasts for the spilt second when individuals collect information from their sensory systems and preserves information in its original sensory form. The sense organs are limited in their ability to store information about the world in an unprocessed way for more than a second. Thus, information is filtered through or selected by attention for further memory processing into the next type of memory store. This process of experiencing and filtering information is called acquisition. The next memory store is Short-term memory allows individuals to retain information long enough to be used and lasts approximately between 15 to 30 s econds. Miller (1956, cited in Weiten, 2005) proposed that Short-term Memory had a capacity of about 7 chunks of information. If certain actions are carried out, the information will be transferred to the last type of memory store, Long-term Memory. Long-term Memory provides retention of information which can last between minutes to a lifetime and has a limitless capacity. The process of information deposited in the short-term and long-term memory store is called retention. Information is constantly being transferred between these stores. When witnesses are asked to give recount of what they witnessed, information is taken from the long-term memory store and this process is called retrieval. Events during these three processes may affect the quality of the eyewitness testimony. During the acquisition process information may not have been perceived in the first place, information may be forgotten or interfered during the retention process or information may be inaccessible during questioning or during the retrieval process. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Acquisition Process During the acquisition process, there are a number of factors that can affect an eyewitness report of an event such as exposure time or stress. This can be divided into event factors and witness factors. This section of the essay will evaluate the effect of these factors on the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Exposure time to the event or object of focus is an event factor. Laughery et al (1971, cited in Loftus, 1979) tested subjects on their recall based on the exposure time to a picture, showed one at a time of different positions of a human face. Two Caucasian male target faces were used, one with fair-colored hair and complexion with glasses and another with a darker-colored hair and complexion without glasses. The independent variable is the time the subjects viewed the pictures, which ranged from ten seconds to thirty-two seconds. The subjects were them asked, approximately eight minutes after exposure to identify the target within a series of 150 slides of human faces. The dependant variable is the accuracy of the subjects recall. Fifty-eight percentof the subjects who viewed the pictures for thirty-two seconds correctly identified the target but only forty-seven percent of the subjects who viewed the pictures for ten seconds correctly identified the target. This suggests that the more time a witness has to view the target, the more accurate their recall will be. This research is significant as it is very scientific and precisely tested a specific variable that affects memory and recall. Although this is so, it was also conducted in an artificial environment and thus, has low ecological validity. The research may also contain cultural and gender bias as it only tested for Caucasian males as the target. Thus, its application to targets of different cultures or gender is questionable. Estimating factors such as time, speed or distance is often asked of eyewitnesses. This involves perceiving the event and accurately inferring information from it. Marshalls (1966, cited in Loftus, 1979) experiment tested subjects estimation of time. Four hundred and ninety-one subjects watched a forty-two second film and a week after they had given their written and oral reports of the event, they were questioned as to the duration of the event. On average, subjects gave an estimate of about ninety seconds. The results show that witnesses can inaccurately estimate certain factors of an event. Although the results are significant, the study was conducted in a controlled environment which gives it little ecological validity. To further assess the accuracy of this study, an additional study that can be considered is Buckhout et al. (1975, cited in Loftus, 1979)s study on the effects if eyewitness testimony in a real situation by staging an attack where a student attacked a professor in front of 141 witnesses. The attack lasted for thirty-four seconds but when interviewed later on, the average estimate of the duration of the event was eighty-one seconds, almost twice the actual time. This study supports Marshalls study which shows that there is a tendency for witnesses to overestimate the duration in an event. This is significant in most cases, especially for cases of self-defense where the time between the attack and the retaliation is very significant in the categorization of the action. Another event factor is the violence of the event. A research done by Clifford and Scott (1978, cited in Loftus, 1979) investigated the ability of eyewitnesses to perceive violent and non-violent events. Forty-eight subjects with equal number of men and women watched either one of two tapes. In the non-violent version, the characters were involved in a verbal exchange and weak restraining movements. In the violent version, one of the characters physically assaults another character. In an effort to be even, the start and end of the tapes were manipulated to be identical. It was found that regardless of gender, the level of recall is significantly lower for those who viewed the more violent tape. It is inferred that this is due to the greater amount of stress that is produced in response to the violent event. This shows that eyewitness testimony of a violent event should be considered with the possibility of a higher rate of inaccuracy. Though the results are significant due to the hi gh reliability of the scientific method used, it also lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment where witnesses do not actually experience the event. An event factor that is linked to the witness factor, stress, is weapon focus. Easterbrook (1959) found that under high stress, individuals tend to concentrate more on a few features of their environment and less attention to other features. Weapon focus is where a crime victim is faced with an assailant who is brandishing a weapon. This rises the stress level of the crime victim and thus, they will only concentrate on a few features, mainly the weapon and will have trouble recollecting other factors such as the assailants features. Loftus et al (1987) tested this with an experiment where thirty-six students were showed a series of slides which showed one of two scenarios at a fast food restaurant. Half the subjects saw a customer pointing a gun at the cashier while the other half, the control group saw a customer handing the cashier a check. A part of the experiment tested the memory of the students based on a series of seven questions on the customer. It was found that the level of accuracy of the weapon group was fifty-six percent while the level of accuracy for the control group was sixty-seven percent. As the results show that the accuracy level of the weapon group is lower than the control group, this is highly significant in showing that eye-witnesses acquisition process might be seriously hampered by the presence of a weapon. The results of the experiment are highly valid as it was conducted in a controlled environment which allowed a direct cause and effect outcome. While this is so, the participants did not experience the event and thus their response may be different to an actual witness which means that the experiment lacks ecological validity. During an event, stress is a witness factor that should be taken into account. This refers to the level of stress or fear that a witness experiences which may influence their perception during the acquisition process of the event. A simulated case study done by Berkun (1962, cited in Loftus, 1979) placed army recruits in a stressful situation. They were isolated with the exception of a telephone link. Then, they were told that they were in danger to induce anxiety and were required to repair a broken radio by following a series of complicated instructions. It was found that the high level of anxiety impaired performance of the subjects. As this case study was conducted during a period of different ethical standards than today, there are ethical implications to be considered. Nevertheless, the results of this case study significantly support the Yerkes-Dodson law (1908, cited in Green) which states that emotional arousal facilitates learning and performance up to a point after which t here is a decrement. This can be applied to eyewitnesses who experience stress. Their senses may be stimulated but after a point, their acquisition process will be negatively affected. Although this is so, this case study has only looked at male soldiers, thus when applied to the general population, it lacks ecological validity. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retention Process Eye-witnesses are being tested on their retention of information from their Long-term Memory. Because retained information and thus, memory is being transferred between memory stores, it is possible that it can be influenced, enhanced or even distorted during or in between transfers. This section of the essay will focus on the numerous researches that have been carried out to investigate the accuracy of this or the extent of the influence that may occur. After an event occurs, sometimes witnesses discuss what they saw with each other and the information that is exchanged can result in an enhancement of memory in the form of modification or addition. An experiment was conducted by Loftus (1975) on one hundred and fifty participants. They were showed a film of a car crash where a car failed to stop at a stop sign and turned right to enter traffic, causing a five-car collision. After the film which lasted for less than a minute, participants were asked a series of ten questions. Half of the participants were asked about the stop sign in the first question while the other half were asked about the right turn. All other questions were the same. The independent variable here is the first question and the dependant variable is the last question which asked participants if they remembered seeing a stop sign. Loftus found that there was a higher percentage of participants who recalled seeing a stop sign if the first question related to a stop sign than the control group, fifty-three percent and thirty-five percent respectively. This shows that by mentioning an object, there is a higher chance of it being recalled. The results are highly significant as it was calculated using precise results with a specific variable tested. It can be argued that the experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment but this allowed a specific variable to be tested which would have been impossible with a case study. As demonstrated by this experiment, eye-witnesses memory may be influenced by post-event information that they receive and thus, the more information that the witness is exposed to after the event, the higher the chance that their memory might be compromised. A modification to the previous variable is the question as to what happens when a witness learns new information which is different from what they experienced. Loftus (1975) conducted an experiment where forty participants were shown a three-minute video which involved a group of eight demonstrators noisily interrupting a lecture. The participants then had to answer a series of twenty questions. All the questions for the participants were identical except for one. Half of the participants were asked, Was the leader of the twelve demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? and the other half were asked, Was the leader of the four demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? All questions had to be answered with a yes or no. A week later, participants had to answer another set of questions. The critical question was How many demonstrators did you see enter the classroom? It was found that participants who previously answered the question with the word twelve reported an average of 8.9 demonstrators while the other half reported an average of 6.4 demonstrators. It can be argued that this experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment and that participants only viewed the event and did not actually witness it. The results may not be fully applicable to the general population. Although this is so, the controlled environment showed a direct cause and effect of a specific variable. The results of this experiment can be applied to eye-witness testimony where witnesses may be mislead in their testimony as their memory might be compromised by the introduction of conflicting information. Similar to the experiment above is an experiment conducted by Loftus and Zanni (1975, cited in Hill, 1998) which was a modification of the original Loftus and Palmer research. The aim of the experiment was to investigate the effect of adding post event information on memory. Participants were shown a film of a car accident after which they had to answer a series of questions. Half of the participants were required to answer, Did you see the broken headlight which implied that there was a broken headlight while the other half were asked, Did you see a broken headlight which only required participants to recall if it was there. It was found that half of the participants, who were asked using the word the, incorrectly reported seeing a broken headlight. As most of the other variables were controlled in the experiment, and only a specific variable was changed, the results signify that memory can be modified by post event information. It can be argued that the participants did not experie nce the incident and thus the experiment lacks ecological validity when applied to actual witnesses but as a specific variable was examined, it can be concluded that the cause and effect was to a large extent connected. This experiment shows that eyewitnesses may be influenced by post event information which may negatively affect their account. McCloskey and Zaragaza (1985) also conducted experiments concerning the effect of misleading post event information on participants. After watching a series of slides depicting an event, participants received a narrative of the event. Participants in the mislead condition will receive a narration with receive the narrative with misleading information about a detail of the event, a hammer was referred to as a screwdriver instead while the control group werent provided details of the specific event. Participants then had to answer a series of questions about the event. The critical question concerning the tool had the original item as an option (hammer) and a new item (wrench). It was found that accuracy for the control group was seventy-five percent and seventy-two percent for the mislead condition group. The fact that there was little difference between the two groups points to the idea that misleading post event information does not distort memory of an event. This experiment suppor ts the validity of eyewitness testimony and due to the controlled setting; the results are highly valid though it lacks ecological validity. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retrieval Process Most evidence from eyewitnesses are a result of their accounts of the event. This involves the retrieval process of information from their long term memory store. This section of the essay aims to analyse and evaluate research conducted in relation to the techniques of retrieving information from eyewitnesses such as question wording or method of questioning. This is to evaluate the extent of influence of such techniques on the reliability of eyewitness accounts and in relation, memory. The method of questioning during the retrieval process plays an important role in the accuracy of eye-witness testimony as investigated by Lipton (1977, cited in Wells, 1978). Lipton conducted an experiment where participants watched a film of a murder in a courtroom setting. He found that unstructured testimony which allowed free recall resulted in ninety-one percent accuracy. This is a significant value as compared to other types of questioning such as open ended questions with eighty-three percent accuracy, leading questions with seventy-two percent accuracy and multiple choice questions with fifty-six percent accuracy. These results show that the type of questioning that the witness is subjected to affects the accuracy of their recount. When applied to trial testimonies, jurors should take into account the type of questioning to predict or get an idea of the level of accuracy of the testimony. Though conclusive to a certain extent, the experiment lacks ecological validity as the participants did not actually experience the event, merely perceive it but as it is a controlled environment, the reliability of the cause and effect factors is high. Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) carried out an experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of participants in recalling a car crash. Fourty-five participants were separated into seven groups and each group watched a video of traffic accidents. The videos lasted from five to thirty seconds. After watching the video, participants had to give an account of what they had just seen. The independent variable is the question About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?. The word hit is replaced with the words smashed, contacted, bumped and collided for different groups. The participants answer as to the estimate of the cars speed is the dependant variable. Loftus and Palmer found that the mean estimate of speed for more aggressive words such as smashed is higher than less aggressive words such as contacted. The results are highly significant, p Contending the results of this experiment is Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study of a real life event. 13 participants were interviewed using Loftus and Palmers (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) technique in their recall four to five months after witnessing an attempted robbery in daylight where one individual was killed and another, seriously wounded. It was found that there was a very high level of similarity between the accounts given by the witnesses, the accounts did not alter in response to leading questions and that the witnesses were able to recall the event in detail. Additionally, accounts of those who were more distressed had a higher accuracy level. These results are different to Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998). The eye witnesses did not alter their accounts greatly in response to leading questions. As this is a case study, it holds high ecological validity unlike laboratory experiments. Although this may be true, Yuille and Cutshalls case study was of an event t hat was relatively traumatic event and was viewed in ideal conditions. Most incidents do not mirror this setting. Also, it was an investigation of only one case study. Hence, the application of these findings is debatable when applied to general eye witness testimonies. Conclusion This essay evaluated the extent of accuracy of the claim that eyewitness testimony should not be depended upon. This was done by focusing on the different factors that can affect human memory, and in relation, eyewitness testimony as it is fundamentally based on memory. Experiments and case studies related to factors in three different memory stages were identified and evaluated. Research concerning the acquisition process such as exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event, for example, time, violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress level during the event was analysed. Results point to a correlation of high levels of inaccuracy when more traumatic factors are included in the event. This is also reflected in research concerning the retention process and the retrieval process although there is some evidence that supports the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Overall analysis criticised the low ecological validity of controlled experiments but also supported the high level of validity that comes with it as it essentially provides a cause and effect relationship between specific variables tested. Case studies were found to be very specific with regards to certain factors, which leads to a debate about their general application. Since experiments are only replications of real-life events, it cant be fully taken as the actual process . This may have some influence on the results obtained as it can be argued that the participants are not really experiencing the event, thus essential factors like, atmosphere, or even interest in the event may be compromised. In this manner, results of case studies hold a higher level of reliability. As indicated by the numerous researches on different factors during the process of collecting, processing and retrieving information from memory, eye witness testimony is reliable only to a small extent. Under such fallibility, it can be questioned if eyewitness testimony should be relied on at all. Though eyewitness testimony has been proved accurate in a number of researches, the amount of investigations concluding on the fact that it is highly imperfect far outweighs it. Though a large number of researches do not support the reliability of eyewitness testimony, there is also evidence to support it like Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study. This suggests that although eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, under certain conditions, it is highly accurate. Implications for application of the analysis in this essay could include jurors being more wary of eyewitness testimony and the conditions relating to it when deciding upon a verdict. Further research could include more case studies to increase the ecological validity of the theories produced by experiments analysed in this essay. References Atkinson, R. C. Shriffin, R. M. (1971), The Control Processes of Short-term Memory, Stanford, California, Stanford University Easterbrook J. A. (1959), The Effect of Emotion on Cue Utilisation and the Organisation of Behaviour, Psychological Review, Vol 66(3), 183-201 Green, C. D, (n.d.) Classics in the History of Psychology Yerkes and Dodson (1908), Toronto, Ontario, York University, Retrieved from psychclassics.yorka.ca: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/Law/ Hill, G. (1998), Oxford Revision Guides, AS A Level Psychology, New York, Oxford University Press Loftus, E. F; Loftus, G. R; Messo, J. (1987), Some facts about Weapon Focus, Law and Human Behaviour, Vol 11(1), 55-62 Loftus, E. F. (1975), Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Repost, Cognitive Psychology, Vol 7, 550-572, University of Washington Loftus E. F. (1979), Eyewitness Testimony, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, USA, Harvard University Press Yullie J. C. Cutshall J. L. (1986), A case study of eyewitness memory of a crime, Journal of Applied Psychology, Volume 71(2), May 1986, 291-301 Weiten, W. (2005), Psychology: Themes and Variations, The United States of America, Thomson Learning Inc. Wells, G. L. (1978), Applied Eyewitness-Testimony Research: System Variables and Estimator Variables, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Volume 36, No. 12, 1547-1557, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Issues - Same-Sex Marriages :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

Same-Sex Marriages Currently in the United States there has been much debate over the controversy surrounding the legalization of same-sex marriages. There are many people who are opposed and feel it is morally and ethically wrong and others who feel that same-sex marriages are acceptable. Prior to writing about this topic I had no strong feelings toward or against the issue on same-sex marriages. After researching and finding out more information on the topic, I became in favor of allowing those of the same-sex to have there marriages legalized. Many people ask themselves why gays and lesbians even want to attempt to get laws past to be allowed to get married. Why would they want to be married? Are they not happy with the relationship in which they have? Gays and lesbians are just like heterosexuals, they want there marriages to be recognized by the law. They are like any normal couple and want a marriage to prove and show their love for each other. They want that simple document that the government gives to heterosexuals which binds two people into a marriage. What exactly is marriage then? Marriage is a legal relationship between spouses; it is established by a civil or religious ceremony, and takes place between two people who intend to live together as sexual and domestic partners. The AIDS epidemic stirred up many questions and brought public attention on a range of issues surrounding gay and lesbian rights. Legalizing same-sex marriages may help prevent aids. If two people are in a marriage then they are less apt to have many sexual partners and will help stop the spread of AIDS. Other people feel that same-sex marriages are not a proper place to raise children. This is a truly false statement because there are many people who have children and procreate that should not have that right. For instance, murderers, child molesters, drug and alcohol addicts are all free to procreate and raise children and homosexuals are not. This does not make sense. If a person can raise a child and give them love, shelter, food and other necessary resources to raise a child, then they should be given the right to raise a child. Just because a child has more than one mother or father does not mean that they are going to grow up gay or have emotional problems.